Samurai Sword History

A Samurai Sword would be more properly defined as any Japanese Sword wielded by a Samurai or Bushi, as they were historically known in Japan, but modern film and television have incorrectly portrayed them to be only the well-known Katana Sword and very rarely use the proper terminology.

To uncover actual Samurai Sword history we have to travel back in time to the Middle Ages as the use of steel from bronze for bladed weapons vastly improved and single edged swords became more popular throughout Asia and the production of the Japanese Tachi and Uchigatana began. Japanese Swords, or Nihonto are the traditional bladed weapons of all of Japanese history. The Tachi was mainly used by cavalry with the cutting edge down and the curvature closer to the sword hilt, and the Uchigatana was mainly used by foot soldiers and worn edge up from the belt with the curvature closer the sword point. With the eventual evolution of military and feudal society during this time period an entirely new class of warrior emerged. They were masters of the art of war and evolved from being employed as guards serving powerful leaders, into a completely dominant class of there own, the Samurai. It led to the establishment of the feudalistic military that then established the Ways of the Bushido which dominated the Japanese social structure for the next 700 years. Their primary role as military knights included total and absolute allegiance for whom they were pledged to fight, and if need be, die defending which resulted in the need for a superior single bladed weapon to use in close quarter combat as well as defence. Their demand for these high quality weapons produced swords of unrivalled perfection, as they had to be flexible enough to withstand direct impact without breaking, but had to also be hard enough to retain their sharp edge. Only the most experienced Japanese sword smiths were able to develop the forging and heat-treating methods which resulted in swords that had both of these properties, eventually named the Katana. Even the Katana itself greatly varied in style during the course of Japanese history, in the late 14th and early 15th centuries they tended to be two and a half feet long but by the early 16th century the length was much closer to two feet with a circular or squared tsuba hand guard, and a wrapped grip that could accommodate two hands. These Katana Swords were often accompanied by the similarly made but smaller swords Wakizashi or Shoto and the two weapons together represented the social power and personal honour of the wielding Samurai.

History of the Keris

History

The Keris is  a weapon unique to South East Asia. Not because of is distinctive wave form shape or Dapor/Dapur. The keris comes in a wide varieties of Dapor, Wavy, strait, long short, curved, and with a number of end uses such as daggers and lances. These issues are discussed in the section that deals with the anatomy of the Keris but it is mentioned here because what makes the Keris unique to S.E. Asia is the details that are formed and carved into the base of the blade.
It is also due the cultural attachment to the manufacture and the ownership of the weapon that gives it the truly S. E. Asian characteristic. Many cultures honour and revere their bladed weapons but few hold such deep cultural roots, and have become such an ingrained icon of cultural heritage. The Keris like no other weapon conjures up visions of the Mystical Orient and warriors and makers possessed of magical abilities.

There is little or no doubt that the Keris is a product of Java. The Malay and Bugis cultures claim it as theirs but there is little doubt that they developed their weapons based directly on those of the Javanese weapon. Many scholars debate the date of origin. it is estimated that it was developed between the 9 and 12th Centuries, based on sculptures at Candi Shukur in Java. This clearly shows a weapon being held that resembles the first type of Keris known in Java. However, this is an estimate by western experts who base their statements on researched and verifiable facts. This does not mean that it is the absolute end of the story as we are learning everyday that with more research and more exploration, the old pre-conceived facts become overturned in the light of new facts coming to light.

There is no doubt that the Keris is a weapon developed on the Indian weapon of similar nature. It is also assumed that the early introduction or WOOTZ from the smithies of India hold much in the development of the Keris. Wootz was developed in India in the maufacture od steel where iron, and varius other minerals are mixed in a secret formula and mixed olso with orther organic chemicals which provided the stregnth and the damascene folding so sought after in Asian and in particular in the Middle East.
Wootz would have been introduced to Indfonesia or Sumatra and Java by the Indian traders so common in early history. These traders would have brought with them as special gifts for royalty and as bribes small quantities of the metal along with weapons of their own design and manufacture.
There are definite links historically in the religions of India and Indonesia. Indonesia was predominantly an animistic country until the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism from India. This spread is evidenced by the of the religions throughout SUmatra and Java, Borneo and the various other islands in the Archipelago. The spread was again instituted by traders from India and local trade, but in Java anf Bali much of the magnificent buildings of the times remain for us to look at and it is in these places that references are found to the Keris.
They are of a specific type and shape and are unique in their dapor to Java. This is where the experts base the origin of the Keris and why they feel sure it is Javanese. It is unlikely that so much reverence would have been paid to this icon of cultural heritage and not recorded in other places before this era. However that does not mean it is absolutely the end of the discussion. There may be many factors out there waiting to be discovered that would take us further back in time to find the Keris was developed earlier.
It is possible that in Northern Sumatra there are more historical instances of the Keris or in Malaysia, or other areas. There is no doubt that weapons were developed in these areas long before the 9th century, but they cannot go too fact back as the development of steel or iron weapons has a specific date that is well known and accepted.

For the moment let us accept that the Keris was developed in Java and was developed first between the 9th and 12th Centuries. It’s links to India and indian deities are also part and parcel of the history of the weapon and this is reflected in the development of many parts of the based of the Keris. Its links to Indian culture are clear in the elephantine shapes carved into the blade. Linking it to the Elephant God Ganesha and the adaptation of that name Gadhja in Indonesian.  the Hindu God Ganesha represents the power of the Supreme Being that removes obstacles and ensures success in human endeavors. Hindu religious texts recommend the worshipping of Ganesha before the beginning of any religious, spiritual or worldly activity. Having established that the Keris is related to Ganesha and the enormous significance this god had in Hindu life which was predominant in Java at the time, the links are obvious and this can explain the reverence paid to this weapon by the people of the area.

Accepting that the weapon was developed in this time scale we must look at the design changes that have developed into what is known as the Keris today. The earlierst form of the Keris is though my many to be to the Jalak Budho Dapur. This has the same shape as that of the keris in the hand of the deity in Candi Shukur.  as you can see in the picture this is a very basic broad but short bladed weapon.  Collectors consider it absolutely essential to have one of these types of weapons in there collections for it to be complete.
This very basic design would also fit in with the available technology of the time. Since all weapons fo this nature are hand made it is therefore easy enough to see that in the 9-12th centuries the tools available to the smiths or Empu would have been restrictive in what they could form from the metals used in the manufacture of the Keris. The Jalek Budho is of a type and shape that needs little more than basic tools to make and this then also give the Empu a good surface to work on with the various mt]etals that make up the damascene of the weapon.
The avaioablity of the metals would also be a restrictive factor and assists in developing a good picture of the development or history of the keris. Mining would have been very basic and sim=nce minerology was limited to a very few people the actual metals used for the Keris would have been limited and again may explain the broad shape of the original bladed form. Many people hold that the blades are made from meteor fragments that are then turned into the finest weapons but this is unlikely except in the rarest of occasions. Such a weapon, made of star metal would have mystical powers of great significance and would only be in the collections of very special of very rich people.
 After the 12th century the details of the histroy become a lot cleared as documentation becomes better and there are more and more examples of the art after this period.
By this time, the art had a chance to develop and the Empu’s would have been engaging many apprentices and the development of the basic design which would be expected to take between 100-200 years is clear as more and more examples of the Keris from this era become available.
By now also the Keris had become a significant cultural Icon and we have records describing the type of dapur related to the owners and who could and could not own the Keris. We have records of the colur hierarchy related to ownership and status of owning weapons of various types.

Samurai Katanas

When one thinks about the Japanese Samurai, one of the first images that comes to mind is the magnificent swords used by these ancient warriors, known as the Katana. In the ancient Samurai Religion, the Katana was only to be owned and used by a Samurai warrior. Peasants who were found to possess one would be killed instantly.
The first Japanese swords were actually from China and Korea. By the 5th century, the Japanese were forging their own swords, though they had a straight blade (which are now know as ninja swords), rather than the infamous curved blade of the Katana. It wasn’t until the Samurai went from fighting on foot, to fighting from horseback, that the design took on it’s more famous form.
The curved design of the Katana not only made it easier to use while riding a horse, but made it a much better weapon. It could now be used for slicing and for thrusting. However, the Samurai believed that the Katana was such a special weapon that it was only to be used in extreme situations. They believed that the Katana was an extension of their souls, and therefore, should only be wielded as a last option.
There are still hundreds of original Japanese Katanas still in existence. However, with modern technologies, there are many more replicas. You can see a wide range of replicas on this samurai swords page. The Katana is as highly regarded today as it was a thousand years ago, and is still seen as a weapon of masters.

If you watch many Japanese movies or animated shows, you probably already know who the Samurai are. With their razor sharp and deadly swords, they exhibit precision and skill unmatched by other swordsmen of the world. Every movement done with the sword is a dance, a form of art, with symbolic meanings that run deep within the veins of Japanese history. Katanas through the ages is yet another interesting article that describes the journey of the Katana along time.

Nihonto is the Japanese term for sword, and the word translates to “Japanese Sword” in English. Throughout Japanese history, there have been many citations of the skillful weaponry their armies possessed, but nothing like the bladed weapons such as the swords. If it takes a masterful Samurai to wield a Nihonto, it takes an even more skilled sword smith to create it. At the present time, very few Japanese smiths can create Nihontos just like they were centuries ago.

Here is a few historical tidbits on these marveled and feared weapons of Japan. It was in the 8^th century where the first records of swords were created under the Heian Period. Most of the influences of sword making trickled to Japan from the Chinese, who were at this time under the reign of the Tang Dynasty. The earliest swords in Japan were called Chokuto.

The process of sword making was developed and attributed to a man named Amakuni, who lived in the Yamato Province around the 7^th century. According to sources, Amakuni was the stuff of legend, as he was credited for creating the first single edged sword called the Tachi, with the blade about 80 to 90 centimeters long.

The Nihonto for the Japanese warrior is a symbol of honor and of valor. As the centuries progressed, there have been many variations of the Nihonto, with added engravings and carvings as part of the forging process. The Nihonto was said to be a highly efficient weapon, which can be used on horseback or on foot. The blades have been tried and tested over centuries of feudal wars and battles. Given the right training and skill, any swordsman can be ultra deadly with a Nihonto in his hands.

The modern times did not cause a decline in the popularity of the Nihonto. Moreover, there are now recent variations of the weapons, and they are now classified into different groups depending on the size of the blade and its use. See this set of samurai swords with a Katana and a Wakazashi At present, there are schools in Japan that preserve and teach the art of the Samurai along with other martial arts.

A Brief History of the Samurai

Samurai (�also known as bushi) were members of Japan's military class. The name is also used for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. This is also the etymology of the Japanese word subaru. Some believe subaru was originally samurai and changed over the years. By the end of the twelfth century, subaru became synonymous with the word bushi, or warrior, the root of the word Bushido. The samurai used and were experts in many weapons of their time but their most famous weapon, and the symbol of who they were, was the katana (more commonly known as the samurai sword. The belief structure and culture were based on the idea of Bushido, which means 'the way of the warrior' and advocated unquestioning loyalty to the master at all costs and obedience in all deeds, valuing honor above life.
Bushido was so important to the samurai that they would die or commit suicide with a strict formal method called Seppuku by cutting their own stomach with a sword before being captured or dying a dishonorable death. Here is a brief history of time periods of the samurai from AD 538 to today:
1. Asuka period (Asuka jidai "period of flying bird"), AD 538 - 710
2. Nara period (Nara-jidai) AD 710 - 794
3. Heian period (Heian-jidai or "time of peace and tranquility" ) AD 794 - 1185
4. Kamakura period ( Kamakura-jidai) AD 1185 - 1333
5. Muromachi period (Muromachi-jidai) AD 1333 - 1573
6. Azuchi-Momoyama period (Azuchi momoyama jidai) 1573 - 1603
7. Edo period (Edo-jidai), also the Tokugawa period (Tokugawa-jidai) 1603 - 1868
8. Samurai culture today

Asuka period (Asuka jidai "period of flying bird"), AD 538 - 710
In 538, Buddhism was introduced to Japan by Baekje, with whom they had an agreement for military support, and it was promoted by the ruling class. Prince Shotoku, was disputedly-reported to be a regent and a politician, devoted his efforts to the spread of Buddhism and Chinese culture in Japan. Shotoku brought relative peace to Japan through the proclamation of theJushichijo kenpo in 604, often referred to in Japan as the Seventeen-article constitution, a Confucian style document that focused on the kinds of morals and virtues that were to be expected of government officials and the emperor's subjects. This thinking became a great influence in the philosophy of Samurai. After Japan's defeat with Tang China and Silla, Japan went through widespread reforms. One of these reforms was called theTaika Reforms (Taika no Kaishin) in 646 after defeat of the Soga clan, which united Japan. This edict legitimized and required Chinese cultural practices and administrative techniques throughout the Japanese government and aristocracy. In 702,Taiho Code, and the later Yoro Code, required the population to regularly report for a census, which was later used for national conscription. With the data from this census, Emperor Mommu introduced the law whereby a quarter to a third of males were drafted into the national military, which was modeled after the Chinese system and called gundan-sei by later historians.
Nara period (Nara-jidai) AD 710 - 794
Japanese society in the Nara period was decidedly agrarian. Shinto was the predominate religion, which was based around the worship of natural and ancestral spirits (kami). One of the effects of the Taiho Code was to stop the practice of moving the capital when the ruler died, which was done because prior to the decree that city would have been considered polluted. The capital was moved to Heijo-kyo, or Nara in 710. Economic activity flourished during the Nara period due to increased road and a more efficient tax-collection structure. Outside of the capital city, however, commercial activity remained low and land reform systems declined. By the mid-eighth century, shoen (landed estates), one of the most important economic institutions in medieval Japan, became more important as land-holders desired to improve their abilities and efficiencies with land-holding. Local administration became stronger and less reliant on the larger government while the old land distribution system developed byPrince ShMtoku and the rise in taxes caused some land owners to lose their property and become furosha ('wave people' - as in tossed around by the waves, or homeless) and "public lands" increasingly reverted to becoming shoen, or government-owned land. As the size of property grew, the need for security grew as well and wealthy land-owners started needing better protection for their land and a way to collect taxes.
Heian period (Heian-jidai or "time of peace and tranquility" ) AD 794 - 1185
Confucianism and other Chinese influences were at their height during the Heian period. This period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court and noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. The role of samurai grew during this period as wealthy and powerful landowners hired them to protect their property. Two military clans,Minamoto and Taira , became so powerful that they seized control over the country and fought viciously against each other. In 1185, Samurai fought at the naval battle ofDan-no-Ura. Due to this battle and their rising military and economic power, Samurai held more sway in the politics of the court. In 1156, the Japanese fought a civil war, called the HMgen Rebellion (over Japanese imperial succession. This set the stage for the samurai to gain real power in the government. In 1160, the Heiji Rebellion brought the Minamoto and Taira clan battle on full-force, resulting in the defeat of the Minamoto clan by Taira no Kiyomori , who then became the first warrior to become a imperial advisor. He eventually took control of the central government and instituted Samurai control, relegating the emperor to a symbolic position.
Kamakura period (Kamakura-jidai) AD 1185 - 1333
The Taira and Minamoto clans fought again in 1180, beginning the Gempei War which ended in 1185. Minamoto no Yoritomo, the ruler of the Minamoto clan, then established the superiority of the samurai over the aristocracy. He became the Seii Taishogun, and established the Kamakura Shogunate (or Kamakura Bakufu) in 1185, although it wasn't officially recognized formally until 1192. He had military rule over all other Shogun and instead of ruling from Kyoto, he set up command in Kamakura, near his power base. Over time, the samurai clans became warrior nobility or buke, meaning upper, privileged class. The aristocratic culture began to influence samurai with pastimes such as calligraphy, poetry and music while at the same time, the aristocracy adopted certain samurai customs. In 1274, the Yuan Dynasty of the Mongol Empire invaded Japan near northern Kykshk. 10,000 Samurai gathered to meet this force of over 40,000. In 1281, the Mongol army gathered 140,000 men and 4,400 ships to attack Japan, who had collected 40,000 of their own men. While they were on their ships, preparing to attack, a typhoon hit the island, greatly weakening the Mongol army and aiding their defeat by the Japanese by the defenses at the Hakata Bay barrier. These winds became known as Kamikaze (divine wind'). These great meteorological events helped to solidify the common belief that their lands and people were sacred and protected. During this period, a blacksmith called Masamune (c- Masamune also known as Goro Nyudo Masamune (Priest Goro Masamune)), developed method of constructing samurai swords using layers of both soft and hard steel to make them both flexible and able to hold a very sharp edge without being brittle. This development brought katana to the forefront of weapons development. This development was so legendary that an award for swordsmiths exists called the Masamune prize which is awarded at the Japanese Sword Making Competition. Samurai armor was also advancing during this period.
Muromachi period (Muromachi-jidai) AD 1333 - 1573
Zen Buddhism became very strong throughout the samurai culture during this period and helped to shape their conduct and traditions, especially regarding death and killing.
During the Warring States period (sengoku jidai AD 1467-1573), Japan was under constant upheaval due to warring factions. This placed a great worth on Samurai skills and training with samurai swords was perfected. They brought firearms and the arquebus in to their culture when the Portuguese introduced it to Japan in 1543 but the samurai sword remained the primary weapon of the samurai.
Azuchi-Momoyama period (Azuchi momoyama jidai) 1573 - 1603
In 1582, general Akechi murdered Nobunaga and captured his Azuchi castle. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a general who fought for Nobunaga, fought back and defeated Akechi, and took over control. Toyotomi Hideyoshi reunited japan and introduced a strict social caste systems. When he died in 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu took over and increased the power of this system. They forced all the samurai to decide between being a farmer or working as a warrior in a castle town or jMkamachi. He also forbade all but Samurai to wear a sword. He used the samurai to invade China in 1592 and 1598 as well as Korea. These battles were known as Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, the Seven Year War (in reference to its span) and the Imjin War. The samurai almost succeeded in winning.
Edo period (Edo-jidai), also the Tokugawa period (Tokugawa-jidai) 1603 - 1868
The Warring States period (sengoku jidai) was a time of conspiracy and social strife, resulting in nearly constant military conflict. This period lasted from the middle of the fifteenth century to the seventeenth century. During this time, the name of Samurai became less defined as those born out of the typical social structure became known as warriors and thereby known as Samurai. Bushido was used as an important mechanism by where public order was controlled. During the Edo period, Samurai held the top rank in the social caste structure.
In 1615, a few years after Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa troops attacked and destroyed Osaka Castle , eliminating Tokugawa's final potential rival: Toyotimi. Peace subsequently prevailed for approximately 250 years. Due to this peace, the importance of martial arts lessened and its teachings and skills suffered. Most of the samurai class became artisans or beurocrats. Their samurai swords became a symbolic emblem rather than a real necessity, although they still retained the right to kill any commoner who did not show proper respect to them or their title.
The central government forced daimyo ('great name') to reduce the size of their armies, resulting in an increase in the number of masterless samurai (ronin ('drifting person'), causing societal problems. It was during this period that the first non-Japanese became a samurai - William Adams. Adams was the inspiration for the lead character, John Blackthorne in the novel Shogun. He was given two samurai swords to represent his samurai authority. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry brought Western trade and culture to Japan, ending their isolationism. In 1854, the samurai army and Japanese navy were modernized and military commanders were sent to the West to learn military tactics, techniques and procedures. The final hurrah of the original samurai was in 1867, when Samurai from Choshu and Satsuma provinces defeated the Shogunate forces on behalf of the emporer during the Boshin War (Boshin Senso, "War of the Year of the Dragon") in 1868. This led to the opening of Japanese society to the West in what is called the Meiji Restoration (Meiji ishin). The members of the Meiji government decided to follow European military structure, basing the country on the concept of "noblesse oblige." This ended the samurai class. The last conflict in which samurai were of any consequence was during the Satsuma Rebellion (Seinan SensM (Southwestern War)) in 1877 in the Battle of Shiroyama (Shiroyama no tatakai)

THE LEGEND OF ROROJONGRANG (CANDI PRAMBANAN)

Roro Jonggrang was a very beautiful princess from a Javanese kingdom, Prambanan Kingdom hundred years ago. Her famous beauty was known throughout the country, and princes from far and different land and kingdoms came to propose her. However, her beauty did not make her humble, instead she grew her arrogance even more. She refused all their proposal, and sometime in harsh as well. Many returned brokenhearted.

There was a famous prince by that era, Prince Bandung Bondowoso. He was famous by his strength, power, and good looking. He owned a big kingdom with thousand of soldiers. He too heard of Roro Jonggrang's amazing beauty that he set up to the kingdom to propose her.

Having heard that Prince Bondowoso was coming to marry her, Roro Jonggang grew worried. She disliked the idea of getting married, however, she too understood the consequence if she refused the proposal. She knew that Bondowoso had thousands of soldiers that could attack her kingdom if she disappointed him. So when Bondowoso arrived and proposed her, she was willing to accept it with one condition.

Bondowoso had to make her 1000 temples in one night time. If he failed, then Roro Jonggrang would not marry him. Now, Bondowoso was not only strong, he had thousands of men working for him, and not only men, he owned the power to control the genies as well. He agreed to fulfill Jonggrang's wish and started to work it immediately. He used his power to call all the genies and asked them to keep on working until they completed 1000 temples by the time the rooster crowed the next morning.

The genies worked without stop any second. They would only stop by the time the rooster crowed. Soon hundreds of temples were completed. This made Roro Jonggrang restless. She could not sleep or even closed her eyes. She tried to think any way to fail Bondowoso. Finally, she got an idea. She cut paper in the shape of a circle and glued it in front of a candle holder. She lit the candle and carried it to the chicken coop where the rooster slept. When the rooster saw the candle, it thought that it was almost dawn and the sun was going to rise soon. The rooster quickly got up and in a second, it crowed.

The working genies heard the rooster and thought that the morning had come. Instantly, they stopped working and disappeared leaving the undone temples. There were 999 temples that completed. One more to be built. Bondowoso was disappointed to see this. He was very mad. When he found out that it was the work of Roro Jonggrang, he came to her and cursed her into a stone.

Until now, we can still see the statue of Princess Roro Jonggrang in one of those temples that Bondowoso built for her. The temples are now named Prambanan.

How to Write History Term Paper

It is not very surprising to know that writing a history term paper can be quite enjoyable for students especially if it's on the topic of their particular interest. However, most students do not possess the required custom term paper writing skills which is a deficiency that could undermine their chances to come up with a good history term paper despite them having sufficient knowledge of the subject. Given below are helpful tips on how to write a history term paper in an effective way.

After conducting comprehensive academic research on the topic question of your history term paper, organise the data and information gathered for appropriate use in the relevant sections. Once you have compiled your research material properly, make a rough draft of your history term paper in the following manner.

Write the introduction of your history term paper

The introduction of the history term paper contains your thesis statement and describes what you will state in your term paper. The introduction should be written in an interesting style in order to seize the attention of the readers.

Write the main body of your history term paper

This is an important section where you give your detailed arguments and the proof to support the thesis statement of your history term paper. It should be written articulately in order to retain the readers' interest throughout the term paper.

Carefully write the conclusion

The conclusion of your history term paper is basically a summary of what you have stated in the body text. Restate your response to the topic question and assert how it supports your thesis statement in a concise yet strong fashion.

Thoroughly proofread and edit the draft of your history term paper

Once the rough draft of your history term paper is complete, proofread and edit the draft with due focus on grammar and spelling errors. Review your history term paper at least 3 times after thorough proofreading to ensure no point in the term paper is irrelevant to your topic question.

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Candi Kalasan

Central Java, Indonesia
Candi Kalasan is located in the area of Prambanan, a few km NE of Yogyakarta. The temple dates from the first half of the 9th century AD, and is dedicated to Tara. It is only partially restored, but is notable for some fine remaining carvings.
The current view of the temple grounds is quite misleading; originally the temple was surrounded by 52 stupas, that contained caskets and other funerary remains. It seems appropriate that a temple dedicated to Tara, female emanation of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara of Compassion, would supervise this large royal cemetary.
The north face of the temple is seen here.

Lintel Guardians

Candi Kalasan
A pair of damaged guardians across the north lintel give some idea of the original fineness of the temple; see the next page for a rather stunning kala.

Kala

Candi Kalasan
This exquisite, jawless kala is supported by a truncated kala-makara arch; its makaras are, unusually, turned inward. Tall pilasters that frame the niche below the makaras. An elaborate pyramidal shrine is carved above the kala; at the base of the shrine, divine figures overlook the passing scene.
The decorated niche, whose undoubtedly fine statue has now gone missing, is located on the east face (to the upper right, as you view that side) of the temple. It is surrounded by a frame of finely-carved swirling vegetal motifs.

CANDI LORO JONGGRANG INDONESIA

Central Java, Indonesia
Loro Jonggrang in Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia. Located 18 km (11 mi) NE of Yogyakarta, along the road to Surakarta, it was built c. 850 AD or later, either by Rakai Pikatan or by one of the other Sanjaya rulers of Mataram.
The complex was damaged by an earthquake in 2006. Currently (2008), it is partially accessible to visitors, in the midst of ongoing repairs. This view from the northeast shows the Vishnu (far right), Shiva (center, tallest), Nandi (left, scaffolded) and other temples in the complex, whose plan is illustrated on the next page.

The great temple of Shiva at Loro Jonggrang is the largest and principal temple at that complex; the Sanjayas of Mataram were primarily Shiva worshipers, although they also paid their respects to the other gods (Brahma, Vishnu) of the Trimurti.
Uniquely among the temples of Loro Jonggrang, Candi Shiva has four, not one, directional entrances; this alone, even discounting its size, would be sufficient evidence for the primacy of Shiva worship here. Located in the temple, but not visitable in 2008, are the main statue of Shiva in the central cella, flanked by statues of Durga, Ganesha, and Agastya in the north, west, and south chambers respectively.
The stairs from ground level lead up to the body of the temple through imposing gates that are themselves fashioned like miniature shrines, as seen at the corners of this photograph. The balustrades are decorated with scenes from the Ramayana (see following pages), an oddity because Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu, not Shiva. Evidently here, as throughout Southeast Asia, the story of Rama became so culturally powerful from early times that it was appropriated in every possible context, even by rulers who owed their theological allegiance to Shiva rather than Vishnu.

Plan Of Loro Jonggrang

Central Java, Indonesia
The east-facing complex measures about 110m (360 ft) on a side. It is dedicated to the Trimurti - Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu - and the temple of each god is faced by the temple of his vehicle. Smaller shrines, a few of which have been reconstructed, are also found in the complex. Shiva, the central and largest temple, measures 34m (111 ft) on a side and 47m (154 ft) high. Each of the three major temples retains its principal statue in the central chamber (the Shiva temple also has statues in three side chambers); most of these were not accessible in 2008, due to the ongoing repair work.

Statue Of Vishnu

Candi Vishnu, Loro Jonggrang
A worn but still impressive statue of Vishnu occupies the cella of his temple. The four-armed god holds the usual chakra and conch in his upper hands. A club, now broken in the middle, extends downward at the viewer's left. The now-erased lower right attribute is harder to identify, but a lotus would be typical in this murti. An offering run-off channel extends to the viewer's right from the base of the statue.

Kinnara Reliefs

Candi Vishnu, Loro Jonggrang
A band of relief panels along the back and sides of Candi Vishnu show, in each panel, a pair of kinnaras - the Hindu bird-men and women of the heavenly courts - on either side of a floral design, with a pair of flying birds in the upper corners. Although these conventional decorations are repeated in similar panels all across the entire base, they were given individuality by the skill of the artist, as illustrated by the two panels above. Similar reliefs are also carved along the base of Candi Shiva, arguing a unified program of construction and decoration for the temples in the Loro Jonggrang group.

Candi Mendut

 

Statue of Shakyamuni Buddha

Central Shrine, Candi Mendut

This colossal (10 ft tall) statue of Shakyamuni, located in the interior cella of Candi Mendut, is very special: it is the oldest (c. 800 AD, as mentioned on the previous page), the largest, and the finest statue of the historical Buddha that still remains in its original location in Java. The Buddha is seated in "Western" style, legs apart (cf: Ajanta, Cave 26), displays dharmachakra mudra, and is flanked by two bodhisattvas (following pages). In this temple, as in few other places in Java, modern visitors can experience something of the awe and majesty that inspired the devotees who first worshiped here, over a thousand years ago.
agastya
An avatar of Shiva, a legendary guru who spread the worship of Shiva throughout India. His attributes include a pot belly, a beard, and a water bottle. Examples: Gedong Songo, Kailasa Museum

amok
A culturally-defined state of murderous rage.

animism
The indigenous religion of most early humans, including Africa, Asia, Europe, and Native American cultures, but excepting, so far as is known, ancient Egypt [with the possible exception of some early nome symbols] and the Middle East. Its features include reverence for ancestors, shamanism, trance, spirit worship, totemism, and the genius loci.

anastylosis
A disciplined process, pioneered by Dutch archaeologists in the early 20th century, of rebuilding the ruined stone and brick temples of India and Southeast Asia. It consists of the following steps: (1) The location of every existing block is carefully recorded. (2) The remains of the temple are disassembled, block by block. (3) The temple is then rebuilt, using knowledge preserved by the previous steps. (4) During reconstruction, any missing pieces are substituted by blank stones, and the entire structure is made architecturally sound and stable.

balé
An open pavilion. There is an accent on the final "e": balé, rhymes with "hey."

barong
The lion-like creature of good who dances against the evil witch Rangda in Indonesian performance.

batik
The national cloth that is woven in Indonesia. See: Batik Textiles of Indonesia for more information.

Bhima
A hero of the Mahabharata. Bhima was the second of the five Pandava brothers, the largest and strongest. His stories are especially popular in Indonesia. C. Sukuh

candi, pronounced chahn'-dee
The general name for a Hindu-Buddhist stone monument in Java.

chronogram
A sculpted date, in which the digits have been replaced by symbols: C. Sukuh, P. Penataran Sasih

dharmachakra mudra
The hand position in images of the Buddha that signifies his First Sermon. Dharmachakra = The Wheel (chakra) Of The Law (dharma): C. Mendut

gamelan
The Indonesian orchestra, that consists of gongs, metallophones, drums, flute, rebec, etc.

honorific cloth
A cloth that is wrapped around a statue in order to symbolize its divinity and that it is currently under worship. In Indonesia (Hindu), this is most usually a black-and-white chequered pattern (Vishnu-Shiva), or sometimes a modern batik. In Southeast Asia (Buddhist), a red or orange monk's robe. In India (Hindu), a white, red, or yellow wrap. In Japan (Shinto), a white or sometimes red wrap. Examples in Bali: Barong Dance [1], Barong Dance [2], Gunung Kawi [1], Gunung Kawi [2], Gunung Kawi [3], Kecak Dance, Modern Temple, Taman Gili.

ikat
The distinctive dye-resist cloth that is woven in Indonesia.

kaja/kelod
In Indonesia, kaja is the sacred direction, towards the holy mountain, Gunung Agung. Kelod is the impure direction, towards the sea. Houses, temples, and even entire towns are oriented along this axis. Since the mountain is located in the eastern part of the island, in central and south Bali the kaja direction is most often towards the northeast point of the compass.

kala
Literally, "Time;" a gargoyle face that represents the threshold between time and eternity. It is found above temple entrances, gates, and niches, and may be represented with, or without, a lower jaw or vestigial arms. See also: Southeast Asia glossary, kalamakara arch. Examples: C. Arjuna, C. Kalasan, C. Loro Jonggrang, C. Bhima, C. Sukuh.

kala-makara arch
A type of decoration that frames the doorways and niches of temples. Two naga bodies form the sides of the arch, whose ends rest upon outward-turning makara heads. The top of the arch, from which the serpent bodies issue, is a kala. The arch symbolizes a rainbow, which connects the mundane world of the earth to the divine world of the sky. Examples: C. Arjuna, C. Sembadra, C. Kalasan, C. Prambanan, Gedong Songo II

kendi
A vessel for holy water. See: Dawn F. Rooney, Kendi In The Cultural Context Of Southeast Asia.

kris, also keris
The distinctively shaped knife-blade of Indonesia. Typically forged into S-shaped curves, it carries great personal and cultural significance: C. Sukuh

lunar and solar clans
A legend persists, in most countries of southeast Asia, of intermarriage between a native princess ("lunar clan") and an immigrant prince from India ("solar clan"). These legends do have some basis in fact, at least in the sense that numerous Hindu elites and traders did indeed emigrate to SE Asia, in the early centuries A.D., where they intermarried with the local elites and blended their native culture with their newfound homes. Examples: Tana Toraja (Indonesia), Mandalay (Burma), and Cambodia.

makara
A chimera that is part water-snake (naga) and part crocodile or fish, usually with an elephant snout. It is a frequent decoration on balustrades, arches, waterspouts, and offering overflow spouts. See: kalamakara arch.

Meru
The Hindu world-mountain . See: C. Sukuh, Shisanling Stele (China).

meru roof
A pagoda-like roof in SE Asia, always consisting of an odd number of courses, that covers important shrines, and is named after the Hindu world-mountain: P. Taman Ayun [1], P. Taman Ayun [2], P. Taman Ayun [3].

naga
The water-snake, whose cultural iconography and mythology was inherited from India via Southeast Asia. In temple decoration, both the balustrade and the framing arches of niches and doorways are often carved in the shape of nagas (usually, in those cases, a snake's body with a makara head.) See: kalamakara arch.

pura
The general name for a Hindu-Buddhist stone monument in Bali.

pusaka
A general term that is applied to any personal, tribal, or national cultural property or heritage in Indonesia, such as temples, dance, music, kris, statuary, etc.

religious usurpation
A theological strategy in which a religion incorporates competing gods into its own pantheon. For example, Hindu deities were taken up as "protectors" in Buddhism (Hariti, Ryutoki, Brahma and Indra), and as Nats in Burmese animism.

split gate (candi bentar)
The first (entrance) gate of an Indonesian temple, so called because its twin uprights are not bridged by an arch. The form of this gate, which is unique to Indonesia, is especially effective in framing an up-hill approach to its temple. Examples: Imogiri,

taman
A garden or park.

tantri tales
Moralizing stories about animals, like Aesop's Fables in the West. Examples: C. Mendut, C. Penataran [1], C. Penataran [2], Nalanda (India).

tau-tau
19th-century and later funeral effigies of the Toraja people in Sulawesi. The statues are a late manifestation of Torajan ancestor worship, although "ancestor reverence" would be a more accurate term. Made of wood and traditionally clothed, they represent specific individuals, elite family members once known by name, who are buried in nearby cave loculi. Reference: Patrick Blanche, The Tau-Tau of the Toraja. Examples: Londa Nanggala and Lembo cliff burials.

Trimurti
The Hindu Trinity, that consists of the three Great Gods: Vishnu as Preserver, Shiva as Destroyer, and Brahma as Creator. Vishnu's color is black/blue, symbolizing the fertile earth; Shiva's is white, symbolizing the cremation grounds, or black, symbolizing his earlier role as a forest deity; Brahma's is red, the color of fire.

wayang
The premier Indonesian theatrical form. Wayang Kulit, the shadow-puppet. Wayang Golek, the stick puppet. Wayang Gedong, a masked dance. See: Wikipedia article, and Music and Dance on this site.

Traditional weapons from Indonesia

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE KRIS




First of all, what is a kris (or keris in indonesian and malaysian languages)?
A kris is a stabbing weapon (related to daggers) of a particular type from the Malay region, including the West part of the indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, the southern tip of Thailand (Patani), and few islands South of the Philippines (Mindanao and Sulu). Map 1 demarcates the approximate area of origin of the kris, although some krisses can be found in the neighbouring islands due to the population migrations.
There are many types of krisses in these regions, with the following common features (see picture 1):
-The base of the blade flares on the back side. This wider part (which is normally separate) at the base of the blade is called the ganja.
-The blade is provided with 2 cutting edges (with few exceptions), contrary to other daggers from the region (badik, rencong, ect)
-The blade may be straight or waved. The straight blade shape is more ancient and common, contrary to the general opinion.
-The bottom part of the blade includes carved details which are very specific and codified.
-The blade surface often includes patterns obtained by forging of various steels (pamor) and providing a damascened appearance (however the damascening process is of a different nature).
-The hilt has not only an utilitarian function, but always represents either a human being or animal (such as a bird head), this representation being sometimes very abstract for instance in Centre Java due to the islamic rules.
The kris was a very effective self-defence and stabbing weapon in a close combat, in spite of the somewhat unhandy appearance of some krisses.
 Photo 1 Typical javanese kris blade with pamor pattern


Map 1. Area of origin of the kris (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines)

ORIGIN OF THE KRIS It is very astonishing that the origin period of the keris is difficult to ascertain within a range of several centuries! No stabbing weapon looking like a keris could ever be identified on the carved panels of the famous Borobudur temple dating from early 9th century and located near Yogyakarta in Centre Java. However some daggers similar to a keris but with a more massive shape and provided with a pommel (designed for an overshoulder thrust) are shown on the panels of the nearby Prambanan Hindu temple dating from the beginning of the 10th century and representing the Ramayana epic. These daggers of Indian origin can be considered as the forefathers of the modern keris. Towards the end of the 10th century, the centre of the political and cultural Javanese life moved from Centre Java to East Java, where the kingdom of Kediri was established first, followed by the Singosari kingdom in 1222, and finally the mighty Majapahit Empire in 1292. Kris Buda: During this period, the stabbing weapons design progressively evolved, and the first representations of daggers identifiable to a kris were shown on a panel of Candi (temple) Panataran, located near Blitar in East Java and dating from about 1350. Although the blade of these daggers is wide and short as the previous ones, they are no longer provided with a pommel but a handle, and designed for rapier thrust. These prototype krisses are known as Kris Buda (Buddha) and were probably introduced around the 11th century in East Java, and then progressively evolved into a shape similar to the modern kris during the 13th or 14th century. The most ancient kris dated with a full certainty is the famous Kris of Knaud , which was given in the 19th century to the Dutch doctor Charles Knaud by a Javanese prince, as a reward for having cured his son. The blade of this kris is covered with chiselled copper representing Hindu mythological scenes. It is dated from 1264, corresponding to 1342 A.D. Thanks to a very generous friend, I could acquire an antique kris which is deemed to originate from the Kediri kingdom established from the 11th to 13th century in East Java, and which is shown on picture 2A. The blade is very corroded but the general shape (wider than a modern kris blade) is still recognizable, as well as the ganja at the base, and apparent traces of pamor on the blade surface. According to these features, it is likely that it dates from the end of the Kediri period (13th century), so it would be about 800 years old! This rare old piece constitutes the patriarch of my collection and I give it a special consideration.

Photo 2A. Kediri kris (13th century ?)

Kris Sajen: There is another ancient type of kris called sajen (meaning offering), which is forged as a single piece including the hilt in human shape. These small krisses were not aimed at fighting, but thought to possess very strong magic powers, and they are still used nowadays on the occasion of some traditional ceremonies such as the blessing of a village, or before planting rice. Picture 2B shows 3 typical specimens of kris sajen, the blade of smallest one measures 9 cm only! (they are many recent copies). This type of kris is also known as Majapahit kris in the reference books written by western authors, linking them to the Hindu dynasty which ruled Java and part of the neighbouring islands during the 14th and 15th centuries, but this dating is disputed by the Indonesian experts as the krisses from the Majapahit period are deemed to be precious and of high quality, contrary to the simple design of the kris sajen. Another theory links the origin of the kris sajen to the bronze daggers found in Dong-Son (a vietnamese village South of Ho-Chi-Min City), where an advanced civilization developed during the 3rd century B.C, and from which a number of artifacts were found across Indonesia, especially some large bronze drums. The Dong-Son daggers were also forged in one piece with an integrated hilt in human shape similarly to the kris sajen, but this lineage theory is deemed doubtful because of the time interval of more than 15 centuries between the 2 periods.

Photo 2B.Kris sajen or Majapahit

Kris Sombro: In parallel with its development in East Java from the 11th century, the kriss was also existing in the Pajajaran kingdom established in West Java. A famous empu who lived in this kingdom around the 13th century was a woman called Ni Brok Sombro, and she his said to have later migrated to the Tuban kingdom (a vassal state of the Majapahit Empire) in East Java. The krisses manufactured by Ni Brok Sombro (known as kris Sombro) are characterized by their small size and often bear shallow grooves across the blade profile looking like finger marks, these krisses are also called kris pichit or kris pejetan. The krisses Sombro were deemed magic for facilitating deliveries, curing illnesses, keeping pests away, etc. and some models have survived until now. Another legendary speciality from empu Sombro was her very personal technique for hardening the kris blades, but the decency forbids me to relate it here. An old keris Sombro is shown on picture 2C.

Photo 2C.Kris Sombro

Another significant evidence of kris representation was discovered by Thomas Raffles in 1817 on the carved panels of Candi Sukuh, located about 40 km away from the old Centre Java capital Surakarta (now Solo), and dating from 1361 according to the temple inscriptions. Especially, one triptych of Candi Sukuh (see picture 3) illustrates in detail the manufacturing process of a kris blade, exactly in accordance with the traditional procedure still in use. On the left panel, the empu (personified by Bima, a Hindu half-god) is shown forging the blade, while on the right panel his brother Arjuna is activating the vertical air bellows. The central panel shows Ganesha (an Hindu god with an elephant head) apparently sacrificing an animal, probably for ensuring a successful forging operation and imparting magical powers to the kris.

Photo 3. Triptych of Candi Sukuh

It seems well established that in the middle of the 14th century, the modern kris characterized by a long, narrow, and thin blade was already existing, and that the waved blades (more deadly) and the pamor process (inclusion of laminated nickel steel into the blade to make it stronger), were also introduced during the same period. Other less reliable information sources (Javanese writings and legends especially) would indicate that the kris was actually introduced much before the above periods. According to the research made by Osteimer, a Dutch civil servant living in Jakarta at the beginning of the 20th century, who studied six old manuscripts of royal orders of krisses mentioning the names of the monarchs and empus, it would appear that the straight-bladed krisses were manufactured since the 3rd century, and waved blade krisses since the 4th century. However, obvious disparities among the various documents cast serious doubts about their thruthfulness. According to another well-known javanese legend, the kris was brought from the East Indies (South India?) to Indonesia by Panji, a prince hero who lived around 920, and who also introduced the gamelan (traditional percussion instruments) and the wayang (puppet-show). What a fantastic guy! As a conclusion, there is a relative certainty that the first krisses Buda appeared in East Java during the 11th century, and the modern krisses not later than the 14th century based on the kris representations on Hindu temples panels, and the few dated krisses from this period. However it remains some presumption that the kris development started earlier than the above dates acording to old manuscripts and the oral javanese tradition. MODERN KRIS HISTORY In the next centuries after the initial development of the modern krisses in East Java during the Majapahit period, and in spite of the progressive advance of Islam in the region (except in Bali and few other provinces), the symbolic significance of the kris continued to grow because of its assumed magic powers. Thanks to the numerous regional wars and alliances between the various kingdoms, the kris was progressively introduced into other islands than Java, but developped in a separate way in each region. From the examination of the ancient krisses and related documents, it appears that the artistic and manufacturing development of the kris was already very advanced at the beginning of the 17th century, for instance in the Mataram kingdom in Centre Java. Among the famous krisses dating from this period and preserved until today, one can mention the kris with a gold sheath & hilt offered by the Sultan of Aceh to the King of England James 1st in 1613. Another rare specimen is the royal kris from Bima (in East Sumbawa) dating from 1634, also set with a gold sheath & hilt and decorated with precious stones. The past history of the kris is mostly related to feats of arms and murders. A famous legend tells for instance that during a battle against the Javanese, a musilm general used a magic kris and produced a swarm of hornets from the tip of the blade that he directed towards his enemies. The kris was also used in the famous albeit bloody Malay tradition called amok. Literally speaking, amok means a Malay subject to a fit of madness and attacking everybody with a desperate determination. Unfortunately this type of behaviour had spread beyond the Malay region a long time ago! According to witness reports from the 19th century, there was one or two cases of amok a month in Macassar ( now Ujung Pandang) in South Sulawesi, with up to 20 victims per event. Of course, the murderer was finally brought under control and executed by the population, very excited by this kris battle! This type of behaviour was considered as an accepted mode of ritual suicide for an individual overcome by personal difficulties or love despair without any solution in hand. Other tragical historical events involving the kris were the puputan (mass ritual suicides) which occurred in Bali at the beginning of the 20th century, that I will relate in more detail in a next chapter. Until the 19th century, permanent wearing of the kris was customary in the whole Malay region, but it progressively disappeared under the pressure from the Dutch colonial authorities in Indonesia, and the British in Malaysia. Nowadays, the kris is permanently worn only by the attendants of the kraton (Sultans palace), but it is still used during traditional cultural events such as dances, puppet shows, and on the occasion of some official or private ceremonies (weddings). Tangguh: In Java, the various manufacturing styles of modern krisses corresponding to the historic kingdoms have been classified and are called tangguh (meaning estimate). Each tangguh is characterized by some specific features of the blade, especially the metal aspect (iron, steel, and pamor), the shape of the blade (length, width, and waves), and the shape of the ganja. Accordingly, the kris experts are able to identify the tangguh of a blade with certainty, namely its estimated age and origin if it is an original blade, or its reference tangguh in case of a recently made blade. There are about 20 recognized tangguh (with some variations) and the most significant ones, classified in approximate chronological order, are as follows: 1. Tangguh Pajajaran Segaluh (12th century, West Java) 2. Tanggugh Jenggala (12th-13th century, East Java) 3. Tangguh Singasari (13th century, East Java) 4. Tangguh Cirebon (North Java) 5. Tangguh Pajajaran (13th-16th century, West Java) 6. Tangguh Majapahit (13th-16th century, East Java) 7. Tangguh Old Madura (13th-16th century) and Madura (17th century) 8. Tangguh Blambangan (vassal state of Majapahit, East Java) 9. Tanggguh Sedayu (vassal state of Majapahit) 10. Tangguh Tuban (vassal state of Majapahit, East Java) 11. Tangguh Sendang (vassal state of Majapahit) 12. Tangguh Demak (15th-16th century, North Java) 13. Tangguh Pajang (16th century, Centre Java) 14. Tangguh Madiun (16th century, East Java) 15. Tangguh Mataram, including Mataram Senopatem (16th century), Mataram Sultanagung (17th century), and Mataram Amangkurat (17th century) 16. Tangguh Surakarta (18th to 20th century) 17. Tangguh Jogjakarta (18th to 20th century) As previously indicated, this table confirms the uncertainty concerning the advent period of the modern kris since such krisses are mentioned since the 12th or 13th century (tangguh Segaluh, Pajajaran, Singasari, etc.) while the modern kris representations on temple panels and checked datations start from the 14th century only. The most renowned krisses are those from tangguh Majapahit (because of their age) and tangguh Mataram Senopaten (for the quality of manufacturing and the elegant shape of the blade), but some krisses from more recent tangguh are also very appreciated such as those from tangguh Hamengku Buwono VII (Yogyakarta Sultan at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century). Picture 4A shows a small kris which is deemed to date from the Majapahit period (14th-15th century), the shape of the blade and presence of pamor are characteristic of the modern kris. The new sheath is of sandang walikat type and is painted with traditional motifs (sunggingan). Picture 4B shows 2 antique kris blades: the straight blade on top of the picture is from tangguh Segaluh (12th century), characterized by the dry aspect of the metal blade, and the very protruding gandik (front face of the blade at its base). This blade looks very old but does it actually date from the Segaluh period, or was it manufactured more recently in the manner of the Segaluh style? The 9 wave blade shown at the bottom of the picture is from tanggguh Mataram (17th century) and deemed original, please note the quality of the pamor and the elegant shape of the blade.

Photo 4A.Majapahit kris (14th-15th century?)



Photo 4B. Kris blades from tangguh Segaluh (top), and Mataram (bottom)

SYMBOLIC AND MAGIC FEATURES OF THE KRIS The past significance of the kris in the indonesian society is summarized by the following common saying: The five sacred belongings of a Javanese are his house, his wife, his singing birds, his horse, ans his kris. Things have drastically changed in modern times Indonesia, and the 3 last items have been respectively replaced by the television, the motorcycle, and the dish antenna! Some krisses were considered as possessing their own soul. One illustration of the personification granted to the kris was the possibility given to a bridegroom not able to attend his own wedding, to be represented by his kris. The kris was frequently used - especially in Sumatra - as a ritual object for taking sacred loyalty or obedience oaths to a king or a local governor. The grantee had to pronounce the following sacred words: If I betray, I shall be executed by means of this kris. The decoration and value of a kris had to be in accordance with the social status or merits of its owner; usually, wearing a gold kris was exclusively limited to the members of the royal family. The etiquette for handling and unsheathing a kris was very codified, and is still followed nowadays by the experts respecting the kris tradition. In Java for instance, the ritual for unsheathing a kris was as follows: -The left hand holds the sheath on the reverse side with the palm placed underneath, the tip of the sheath pointing upwards. -The right hand holds the hilt, the thumb pressing against the mouth of the sheath and pushing to unsheathe the blade. If the blade is stiff within the sheath, it should not be forced. -Once the blade is unsheathed, it shall be slowly brought to the forehead as a sign of respect to the soul of the kris. In Bali, somebody willing to unsheathe a kris should first get the agreement from the owner to do so, and to be protected against the malefice. The ritual for unsheathing a kris is basically similar to the one used in Java, but the blade should not be brought close to the face nor touched for avoiding to be poisoned. After having examined the blade, it should be slowly sheathed with a grateful feeling. For skeptical individuals, this is a true story narrated by a balinese author. A Balinese was the owner of a sacred heirloom kris (pusaka), and one of his friends had visited him for examining it. The friend was holding the kris, and he suddenly unsheathed it without having been authorized first, then he declared that the kris was similar to the other krisses he had already seen with few minor exceptions. The kris owner was annoyed at this serious breach of good manners, but he did not comment. The next day, the friend came back holding his painful right arm and asked to be apologized. The kris owner was surprised, and the friend told him that during the previous night, he felt a strong and persistent pain to his right hand; after having managed to fall asleep, he dreamed of an old man talking to him angrily and saying: How dared you unsheathe my kris? Go back immediately to my grand-son and apologize to him, and ask him some holy water to cure your pain!”. The friend complied with the instruction, and three days later he was cured and visited the kris owner to thank him, but dared not look at the kris. MAGIC KRISSES The old writings related to the kris include many legends describing their magic powers, imparted by the empu during the fabrication process of the blade. In spite of the quick modernization of the indonesian society, and the strong influence of Islam and Christianity, it is amazing to find out that the pagan belief in the kris magic powers is still alive even amongst the most educated classes of the society. The most fearesome magic power from the kris was its ability to kill somebody at a distance, either by pointing the kris towards the victim, or just by striking his footprints. It is interesting to note the similarity with the voodoo practices or those from our witches casting a spell on somebody. Another magic feature of some krisses which was frequently mentioned is the ability to unsheathe, fly into the air for killing the designated victim, and return to its sheath after committing the murder. We came through two anectodes related to this subject during our stay in Indonesia: During a business trip from Jakarta to Surabaya, we entered into conversation with a young and modern indonesian businesswoman, who narrated to us with gravity and fear her recent vision of an illuminated magic kris flying in her area at night We also had the opportunity to see a badik (another type of sacred Indonesian dagger) in a museum with the blade missing, although it was protected by a shielded glass-case which was locked and not broken open at the time of the blade disappearance. Is it the reality, or simply the result of the astute burglary from a local Arsene Lupin? The krisses also bare the infamous reputation (unverified) to poison their victim, and in order to reinforce this maleficent power, the Madura inhabitants used to dip the tip of their kris into the bowels of a scorpion or a snake! Other legends narrate magic achievements of a less murderous nature, such as a kris rattling into its sheath to warn the owner of an impending danger (one reliable friend actually witnessed such an event), or a kris holding in a vertical balanced position on its tip. I could check the later performance with several of my krisses (see photo 5), and I had the opportunity to watch two krisses holding in vertical balanced position on the hilt, which requires a perfect balancing but not necessarily any magic influence. Skeat, the author of a book related to the malay magic around 1900, reports that a magician was able to extract the equivalent of a cup of water by pressing the blade of any kris, but that the tempering of the blade was definitely destroyed and the kris had lost its value as the result of this operation. The three most appreciated magic powers from the kris were to prevent robberies, floods, and above all fires, the krisses able to perform fire prevention or extinguishing being called makan api (eating fire). One trustworthy indonesian colleague, who was the Manager of the Safety and Fire Prevention Department of a large gas plant, told me that he personally witnessed that a kris pointed towards the flames during a house fire allowed to significantly reduce its intensity. On the same subject, we went through a disconcerting and sad event that I am going to tell you now: In East Kalimantan, I maintained friendly commercial relations with a local antiques dealer, and one day he offered me for sale a beautiful badik from Sulawesi, that he got from a friend who needed some money. This badik was famed for having prevented the house of its owner from burning, while the 300 wood houses around it had been destroyed by the fire. I finally decided to purchase it, and I remember the genuine sadness of my friend when he handed over the badik to me, he was kissing it and thanking it for having prevented his house from robbery and fire during the period he had it with him. Unfortunately, about 2 months after this event, the whole commercial area burned including the house of the antiques dealer! This story raises the question: Magic or not magic?.

Photo 5. Magic krisses holding on their tip

KRIS MANUFACTURING In general, the specific terms applicable to the kris which are mentioned in the next chapters are from javanese origin, although some were known and used outside Java. A kris includes 3 main separate parts ( see picture 6): -The hilt (ukiran or hulu or deder); in Centre Java, the 2 transition pieces between the hilt and the blade are called the mendak and selut respectively. -The blade (wilah or bilah) -The sheath (warangka or sarung); the sheath mouth is called awak awakan in Java, and sampir in Sumatra; the bottom part of the sheath is the gandar, and the metal oversheath found on some krisses the pendok.

Photo 6. Main components of the kris
(ukiran & mendak, wilah, warangka & pendok)

In Java, the master smith in charge of manufacturing the kris blade was called the empu, while the sheath and hilt were made by another craftsman called the mranggi. Because of the symbolic significance of the blade, bearing the soul of the kris, the empus were very respected, and often attached to the royal Court and ennobled. In this chapter, we will describe the traditional manufacturing process of javanese kris blades, which is extremely complex. This traditional craft is still perpetuated nowadays in Java, especially in Yogyakarta and Solo, and in Madura, but with less ritual and more productivity than in the past due to the modern tools and technology. An individual wanting to acquire a new kris blade had to place the order to the empu, with a very detailed set of specifications (number of waves, shape and carved details of the blade, and type of pamor) according to the desired powers from the kris, for instance bringing luck, fortune, being invincible, or simply healthy. Before starting the work, the empu and his team selected an auspicious date, then started a thorough spiritual preparation including meditation, prayers, fasting, and a ritual ceremony to keep away the evil spirits, as without these steps the kris would not get the required powers. The three required metals (as a minimum) for manufacturing a kris blade were as follows: Iron for the bulk of the blade. Steel for the sharp edges. Pamor (nickel steel) for the patterns on the blade surface. Some blades were made of up to 10 types of iron from various origins, obviously for increasing the magic power of the kris. The pamor (meaning alloy in malay language) designates both the nickel steel used for the kris manufacturing, and the type of damascene (silvery patterns from the nickel steel) on the blade. As previously indicated, the use of pamor for manufacturing kris blades was introduced in the 14th century or earlier, and was quickly generalized. However, some blades have no apparent pamor especially in Sumatra, as will be detailed in the next chapters. Originally and probably also later, the pamor (nickel steel alloy) was mainly originating from the Luwu district in South Sulawesi, and it was called pamor Luwu. The iron ore used for producing the pamor Luwu was quite lean in nickel content (less than 1% in the alloy), yielding a pamor pattern with a low contrast on the blade. The pamor Luwu continued to be traded as a raw material for manufacturing kris blades until approximately 1935. In 1749, a meteor fell close to the Hindu temple of Prambanan located near Yogyakarta and Solo in Centre Java. This meteor was found to be a rich nickel ore (more than 5% according to recent analyses), and starting from the 18th century the first blades containing Prambanan pamor were manufactured. Because of the high nickel content, the pattern obtained on the blades was much more contrasted than on blades using pamor Luwu, and the pamor Prambanan was accordingly very appreciated. Moreover, its celestial origin was deemed to reinforce the magic and sacred power of the kris made from it, and the fame of these meteor krisses became legendary. Actually, and considering the relatively small size of the meteor (of which a remaining chip is displayed at the Solo kraton and considered as sacred), it is impossible that a large quantity of krisses could be manufactured with Prambanan pamor. According to most indonesian experts, the meteoric ore (rich in nickel and titanium) was used for manufacturing kris blades since the origin of the kris, but this assertion is disputed as there is no clear evidence of the presence of other meteors in Indonesia. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the main source of pamor used for making kris blades has been imported nickel steel, including recycled bicycle parts! In the next paragraph I will describe as simply as possible the traditional manufacturing process of the javanese kris blades (the most complex one) out of the 3 raw materials (iron, steel, and pamor). Two or three types of iron were generally used for such operation, and the empu was normally assisted by three helpers called panjak. The successive steps for manufacturing the kris blade were as follows: 1. The iron bar is drawn by hot forging, and folded into two equal pieces in U shape 2. The pamor sheet is inserted inside the U shaped iron bar. 3. The iron/pamor combination is remelted and drawn by hot forging, and folded into 2 pieces. It now includes 4 layers of iron and 2 of pamor. 4. The laminated iron/pamor mix is again remelted, drawn by hot forging, and folded into 2 pieces to obtain successively 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and sometimes 128 layers of pamor! 5. The 2 ends are cut and the laminated mix is cut into 2 equal parts of about 25 cm each. 6. The hard steel sheet is inserted in between the 2 laminated pieces produced in step 5. 7. The mix is remelted, drawn and hot forged to produce the raw blade. By using this process, the sharp edge of the blade (located at mid thickness) is automatically made of hard steel. 8. The blade is dressed by grinding and filing. For manufacturing a waved blade, the waves are shaped by lateral hot forging by means of a cylindrical tool. 9. The chiselling of the blade (prabot) is made with small files and chisels, and the blade is polished for bringing out the pamor pattern. 10. The ganja (separate piece at the base of the blade) is fabricated from one of the cut ends obtained in step 5. 11. The blade is reheated to red hot and tempered into a container containing coconut oil. 12. The blade is finally treated with a mix of lime juice and arsenic oxide (warangan) to bring out the pamor contrast, the nickel alloy being less chemically attacked by the acidic mixture than the iron and the steel cutting edge. This description is quite simplistic, as all kris blades forged in accordance with this process should get the same type of pamor (parallel lines corresponding to the various layers of nickel alloy). For obtaining the pamor required by the future owner, the empu had to make use of his secret manufacturing techniques such as hot twisting or controlled recombination of the laminated bars. According to old writings, the manufacturing of some krisses lasted several years. A Dutch author from the beginning of the 20th century reports that he met an empu who manufactured a kris over 13 years. He had a revelation during a dream instructing him to start manufacturing a new kris upon the birth of his son, and to forge it everyday but only at cock crow! He thought that by following this instruction, his son will get a high position in the Government. The productivity of the modern empus has drastically increased, and nowadays it takes about 2 weeks for manufacturing a good quality javanese kris blade. TYPES & FEATURES OF INDONESIAN KRISSES In this chapter, I will briefly describe the main differences between the various types of indonesian krisses, as well as their common features. The most natural way for classifying krisses is by area of origin, and it is generally adequate in practice. An experienced kris enthusiast is normally able to identify the origin of a kris by simply observing the sheath and hilt (provided that the blade is also from the same origin of course). The blade inspection is not always a reliable criteria for determining the origin of the kris, except for well defined types of blades from Sumatra, Java , and Bali especially (see photo 7). As a matter of fact, the javanese blades were highly appreciated in the past and were traded in other Indonesian islands, and more recently the blades manufactured in Madura have often reproduced javanese blades, which adds to the confusion. It is not systematic to find a specific type of kris in each region because of the intensive trading relations between the various islands in the past. A typical example is the influence from the Bugis people (fearless sailors from South Sulawesi) who settled in East Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, Borneo, Sumbawa, and the krisses found in these regions are often similar to Bugis krisses. Another example is the similarity between krisses from Bali and Lombok, due to the Lombok colonization by the Balinese until the beginning of the 20th century.

Photo 7.Typical kris blades from Sumatra (top), Java (centre), and Bali (bottom)

TYPES OF REGIONAL KRISSES: Within any region, even very small ones, there are generally several types of krisses as will be reviewed in detail in the next chapters. The variations may concern the sheath (warangka), the hilt (ukiran), but mainly the shape of the blade (dapur) and the pamor. SHEATH (warangka): The variations generally concern the shape of the mouth, or the type or metal of the oversheath (pendok). HILT (ukiran): The style variations are more or less significant according to the area of origin. In Centre Java (Yogyakarta and Solo) for instance, the style of the hilt was established and codified in detail for several centuries, and the only differences from one hilt to another consist in minor variations in the shape, or the type of wood used, or the transition pieces between the hilt and the blade. In contrast, in non Islamic regions such as Bali where the human depiction is not forbidden, the styles of kris hilts are very diversified, extending from abstract to floral or figurative style in the same region. BLADE (wilah): This is the most varying kris component within a defined region, and it is particularly the case in Java and Bali. On the contrary, the Sumatra blades are often more standardized and have a more utilitarian function. In Java, the traditional classification of the blades is very elaborate and complex, and includes 2 separate factors, the dapur and the pamor. Although this classification is strictly javanese, it has often been used by default for kris blades from other origins. However, there are some specific types of dapur and pamor in Bali and Lombok especially. The DAPUR (javanese blades): It represents the general shape of the blade and the set of carved details (prabot). A blade can be either straight (dapur lurus or lajer or bener) representing the mythical snake (naga) in an idle posture, or waved (dapur lok) representing the naga in an active position. The numbering of the waves (lok) starts from the first concave wave at the base of the blade on the front side, and should always be an odd number, although the last wave at the tip is sometimes difficult to distinguish. In case of doubt, the waves could also be numbered from the first convex wave at the base of the blade on the back side, and the result shall be the same. The maximum number of waves is 13 for common blades, and in the past the blades with 15 or more waves were made for individuals with outstanding physical or mental features, these blades were called kalawija. In practice, there are blades with up to 29 waves. There are many different types of dapur according to the various combinations of the blade shape (straight or waved) and the set of carved details (prabot). Each of these carved details is called a ricikan and bears a specific name, as well as some parts of the blade (see photo 8A). Most of the ricikan are located on the bottom part of the blade, which is called the sor-soran. The gandik is the thick base of the blade on the front side. On some blades, the sharp edges are bordered by a line called lis-lisan or elis, extending from the base to the tip of the blade.

Photo 8A. Names of javanese blades parts

1. Gandik 2. Ganja 3. Ada-ada 4. Lok 1 The 11 main ricikan contributing to the definition of the dapur of javanese blades are specified in the following list, and the most common are shown on photo 8B: Ada-ada: A line more or less noticeable in the middle of the blade, extending from the base to the tip of the blade. Kembang kacang: A protrusion shaped as an elephant trunk, located on the top part of the gandik, which is also called telale gajah (elephant trunk). There are various shapes of kembang kacang, including one type looking like a snub nose (kembang kacang pogok). Jenggot (beard): Spines and serrations carved on the top of the kembang kacang. Lambe gajah (elephant lip): Small protrusion(s) located in front of the gandik and below the kembang kacang. It could be a single one, or double, or more rarely triple. Pejetan: This is the cavity located behind the gandik and just above the ganja. The pejetan is supposed to withstand the thumb pressure during the thrust from the kris. Tikelalis: A channel located on the front side of the blade just above the gandik, about 4 cm long. Sogokan: Parallel blood grooves starting from the base of the blade on either side from the middle. The sogokan is usually double and about 6 to 8 cm long, but it can be single (on the front side of the blade only), or longer. Sraweyan: A channel located on the sor-soran, behind the back sogokan. Kruwingan: 2 channels located on either side of the middle line (ada-ada), extending from the base of the blade almost to the tip. Gusen : Flat face located between the kruwingan and the lis-lisan, and extending from the base of the blade almost to the tip. Greneng: Serrations and spines carved on the rear side of the ganja, and possibly at the bottom of the back face of the blade (greneng sungsun). The greneng includes serrations (ronda and ronda nunut) and spines (ripandan). There are some less common ricikan which are also part of the dapur of javanese blades: Tingil: A single sharp protrusion located on the back side of the ganja or the base of the blade, which can be considered a a variation of the greneng. Jalen: A small protrusion located in front of the gandik and just below the kembang kacang. Jalu memet: A small protrusion located at the bottom of the gandik, below the lambe gajah.

Photo 8B. Ricikan of javanese blades

1. Kembang kacang (pogok) 2. Jalen 3. Jalu Memet 4. Pejetan 5. Tikelalis 6. Sogokan (twin) 7. Sraweyan 8. Greneng In 1910, Dr Groneman (a Dutch civil servant living in Indonesia) identified 118 dapur types of javanese blades, including 40 types of straight blades and 78 types of waved blades. On the basis of the Ensiklopedi Keris by Bambang Harsrinuksmo, which is considered as the master reference book on the kris, I have found 171 known dapur (with some variations), including 70 for straight blades and 101 for waved blades; these 171 dapur are presented with their names and main features in appendix 1. This classification is however incomplete and inaccurate, as another well known kris book (reference # 2 in the bibliography) mentions 380 dapur of straight blades and 439 of waved blades, with some dapur descriptions different from the previous ones! The dapur identification of a blade is often difficult in practice, either because the blade is not of javanese origin (a very common mistake), or because the dapur as previously described include many variations and exceptions, especially for the very old and the recent blades. Photos 9A & B show some specimens of straight blades with well identified dapur (Pasopati, Tilam Sari, and Brojol), and some waved blades of dapur Kidang Mas, Parungsari, and Raga Wilah. The most famed and valued dapur are those including a naga head on the gandik. The body of the snake is often materialized in the middle of the blade until the tip. There are several variations of this dapur, the most well-known being the dapur Nagasasra with 13 waves (or sometimes 9 or 11 waves only). On precious blades, the head and body of the snake are inlaid with gold. Other mythical animals are sometimes represented on the gandik of the blades, especially the lion (singa), the elephant (gajah), Garuda, a wolf or dog, as well as sacred people or objects such as a priest or a banian tree. Photo 10 shows 2 recent naga & singa blades.

Photo 9A. Straight blades with dapur Pasopati, Tilam Sari, and Brojol (from top to bottom)





Photo 9B.Waved blades with dapur Kidang Mas, Parungsari, and Raga Wilah (from top to bottom)



Photo 10. Blades with dapur naga and singa

The PAMOR: As previously mentioned, the pamor of the blade is the center of the magical power of the kris, and each type of pamor is believed to possess a specific vocation. There are many types of identified pamor, especially because they vary from one region to another (Java, Madura, Bali, Sulawesi, etc). Again the javanese pamor are the most well-known and common, and they were studied in detail. In Java, there are 2 general types of pamor: the pamor mlumlah, with pamor layers parallel to the surface of the blade, and the pamor miring, with pamor layers perpendicular to the surface of the blade. The pamor prepared in advance by the empu are called pamor rekan. According to a study from the National Museum in Jakarta, there would be 70 styles of javanese pamor, and 52 small pamor motifs (less common). The Kris Ensiklopedi describes 80 styles of full pamor and 31 specific pamor motifs, the list of which is included in appendix 2. Considering the complexity of the subject, it was not possible to describe in detail all the types of existing pamor in this small book, and I will only mention few well known examples, some of which are shown on picture 11A and in the following chapter related to the javanese krisses. Pamor Blarak Ngirid (coconut tree leaves) with V shaped ribs pointed upwards, and its variation Blarak Sineret with inverted ribs. Pamor Ron Genduru or Bulu Ayam (chicken feathers). The 2 above pamor are complex to manufacture, and highly appreciated because they are deemed favourable for leaders. Pamor Teja Kinurung, deemed favourable for civil servants. Pamor Ngulit Semangka (rind of the watermelon). Pamor Beras (Wos) Wutah (scattered rice grains), existing under various designs. Pamor Udan Mas (pluie d or), deemed favourable for traders. Pamor Raja Abala Raja (king of the kings).

Photo 11A. Pamor Blarak Sineret, Blarak Ngirid, Ngulit Semangka, and Adeg (from left to right)

Because of the similarities between some styles of pamor and the design variations of a defined pamor from one blade to another, the identification of the style of pamor of a kris blade is often difficult in practice except for the few remaining experts in Java and The Netherlands especially. A well known example is the differentiation between the pamor Ngulit Semangka and Beras Wutah. To make the matter even more complex, some blades include 2 different styles of pamor (pamor dwiwarna) or even 3 different pamor (pamor triwarna). Generally, one pamor is a motif on the sor-soran, associated with a main pamor style on the remaining part of the blade. Photo 11B shows 2 examples of old javanese blades with a pamor dwiwarna: The blade on top of the picture features a batu lapak motif (bundle of semi-circular parallel lines on the sor-soran), and a main pamor of ngulit semangka style. The blade shown at the bottom of the picture is characterized by a pamor toya mambeg on the bottom part, and a pamor sekar glagah? on the top part.

Photo 11B. Javanese kris blades with pamor dwiwarna



On this website you find pictures of a part of our collection of Krisses and other traditional weapons such as Krisses from Java and Madura. Kerisses from Bali and Lombok as wel as nice sample's of the Bugis Keris from Sulawesi (celebes) and from Sumatera (Sumatra). There is one example of a Moro Sundang Keris from the Philippines.

Besides Krisses we also have a large collection of tombaks (spears) and kudi / kujang from Java, Madura, Bali/Lombok, Sulawesi and Sumatera. Most of the Tombaks are forged the same way as the Keris with a Pamor pattern.

The other traditional and tribal weapons we have in our collection have it's origin in the many islands of the Indonesiam Archipelago.
We have a nice collection of tribal weapons from Nias, such as Toho (spear), Balato (sword) and Baluse (shield).
From Sumatera we have spears, goloks and Batak and minang kabau weapons.
The weapons we have from Sulawesi are mainly the Badek or Badik and other bugis weapons. From Java we have the pedang and golok (swords) and many kind of pisau (daggers and knives). Other traditional weapons from the Indonesiean Archipelago are cunderik, goloks, klewang and parang. Also the kawali sikin sword swords dagger sekin piso pisau mandau chunderik and the Sewar rencong, tumbok lada.

Besides the old weapons we also sell stands for the Krisses, such as blawong, ploncon, tempat keris, hanoman stand.
For the Keris we haev many kinds of Keris oil: minyak keris. Most famous are cendana (sandalwood) and melati.

At last we are distributing many books about kerisses such as:
The invincible Krises 2 (Vanna Ghiringhelli)
The Javanese Kris (I Groneman and David van Duuren)
Keris Jawa antara Mistik dan Nalar (Haryono Haryoguritno)
Ensiklopedi Keris (Author: Bambang Harsrinuksmo)
Tosan Aji Pesona Jejak Prestasi Budaya (Author: Prasida Wibawa)
Traditional weapons of the Indonesian Archipelago. (author: A.G. Zonneveld)
De Kris: Magic Relic of Old Indonesia Vol I, II (Author: G.J.F.J.Tammens)
Krisdisk: Krisses from Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. (Author: Kartsen Sejr Jensen)
Spirit of Wood The art of Malay Woodcarving